分析三大公司主导的开源项目，揭示其竞合关系与治理影响。
Characterising Open Source Co-opetition in Company-hosted Open Source Software Projects: The Cases of PyTorch, TensorFlow, and Transformers
- 通过混合方法研究三家公司的开源项目协作模式。
- 外部公司贡献约20%代码，但合作结构差异显著。
- 单一家族治理导致权力失衡，影响合作形式与风险。
企业（包括市场竞争者）长期在开源软件（OSS）领域协同开发，形成所谓“开源竞合”现象。现有研究多聚焦由中立基金会托管的项目，对由单一公司主导的项目了解有限。鉴于此类项目普遍性，亟需深入探究。本文采用混合方法，分析人工智能领域的三个公司托管开源项目：Meta的PyTorch（捐赠前）、Google的TensorFlow，以及Hugging Face的Transformers。主要发现：第一，尽管主机公司与外部企业的代码贡献比例相似（80%/20%），但协作网络结构不同（如去中心化或中心辐射型）。第二，合作涵盖战略、非战略与合同型，激励机制和实践方式各异；部分合作特指AI行业（如软硬件优化、模型集成），另一些则属通用软件产业惯例（如漏洞修复、任务外包）。第三，单一供应商治理带来权力不均，从主机方独断决策权（如许可证变更风险）到社区参与策略（如过度控制或过度放权），均影响竞合形态。文章最后提出未来研究建议。
原文摘要 · Abstract (English)
Companies, including market rivals, have long collaborated on the development of open source software (OSS), resulting in a tangle of co-operation and competition known as "open source co-opetition". While prior work investigates open source co-opetition in OSS projects that are hosted by vendor-neutral foundations, we have a limited understanding thereof in OSS projects that are hosted and governed by one company. Given their prevalence, it is timely to investigate open source co-opetition in such contexts. Towards this end, we conduct a mixed-methods analysis of three company-hosted OSS projects in the artificial intelligence (AI) industry: Meta's PyTorch (prior to its donation to the Linux Foundation), Google's TensorFlow, and Hugging Face's Transformers. We contribute three key findings. First, while the projects exhibit similar code authorship patterns between host and external companies (80%/20% of commits), collaborations are structured differently (e.g., decentralised vs. hub-and-spoke networks). Second, host and external companies engage in strategic, non-strategic, and contractual collaborations, with varying incentives and collaboration practices. Some of the observed collaborations are specific to the AI industry (e.g., hardware-software optimizations or AI model integrations), while others are typical of the broader software industry (e.g., bug fixing or task outsourcing). Third, single-vendor governance creates a power imbalance that influences open source co-opetition practices and possibilities, from the host company's singular decision-making power (e.g., the risk of license change) to their community involvement strategy (e.g., from over-control to over-delegation). We conclude with recommendations for future research.
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